Medires Publishers - Article

Abstract

The mitigation of the pandemic, social distancing and confinement, transferred workplace violence to the domestic space, diversifying the differences between the parties involved. The objective of this paper is to explore this structure of domestic and workplace violence, reported in the media and in the specialized literature. A non-experimental, cross-sectional and exploratory study was carried out with a selection of 100 students from a public university in central Mexico. The results show that organizational violence would be made up of eight factors: prejudice, depersonalization, benevolence, harassment, submission, objectification, stigma and harassment, which show the limits of the study and research guidelines in terms of equity.

Introduction

Until March 2021, the pandemic has claimed the lives of two million in the world (WHO, 2021). In Mexico, around 500 thousand deaths related to the SARS CoV-2 coronavirus and the Covid-19 disease are estimated (PAHO, 2021). In this scenario, mitigation policies focused on lockdown and social distancing, affecting remote work. In this sense, Mexican organizations, by registering the lowest salaries among the member countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), reveal a culture and an environment conducive to questioning labor rights (OECD, 2021).

Together with the economic and occupational situation, the pandemic intensified the differences between employees by confining them to their residences and living with relatives in a small and crowded space (Chaparro, 2020: p.113). In this way, the study of violence in the Covid-19 era assumes a wide spectrum of differences between the parties involved, but also the inhibition of commitment and innovation.

The theoretical frameworks that explain organizational formative violence are: 1) theory of reasoned action, 2) theory of planned behavior, 3) theory of spontaneous processing and 4) theory of knowledge networks.

Attitudes mediate the effect of beliefs on intentions and actions. An increase in beliefs increases dispositions toward specific and deliberate decisions and actions. It is a process that goes from the general, in terms of beliefs, to the general, in terms of intentions and actions. However, the predictive power of general belief must be limited by the specificity and dimensionality of attitudes. Since attitudes transmit the effect of beliefs, they delimit their indicators in provisions that can be carried out (Castel and Freundlich, 2010).

Planned behavior theory notes that the effect of beliefs on behavior is mediated by attitudes and perceptions of control. In a contingent situation or event, the perception of control increases its predictive power of intentions and behaviors if and only if it interacts with specific dispositions. To the extent that the perception of control decreases, its relationship with attitudes predicts a minimal effect on decisions. Necessarily, the deliberate and planned process of decision making and implementation of the strategy requires a perception of control consistent with the dispositions towards the object (Castro and Martins, 2010). Attitudes by activating the experience with the attitude object. Attitudes are associations between evaluations of objects. A negative evaluation increases disposition and with it the spontaneity of behavior (Caykoylu et al., 2011).

A network is a set of central and peripheral nodes around which symmetric or asymmetric interaction relationships are established. In the first case, the central nodes are distanced from the peripheral nodes. The information gap between the nodes is explained by the discontinuous transfer of knowledge. In the second case, the differences between central and peripheral nodes are reduced to a minimum, facilitating the exchange of information (Fuentes and Sánchez, 2010). The theory of knowledge networks posits that universities and companies are information exchange nodes that become productive relationships through their knowledge exchanges, development of interdisciplinary projects and training flows (Adenike, 2011).

Policy design explains collaborative relationships aimed at balancing demands and resources in contexts of scarcity, uncertainty, insecurity, and risk. The theory anticipates the emergence of factors such as trust, commitment, and satisfaction that in turn determine innovation and eventually organizational happiness. Vocational training networks are information and communication systems related to the development of educational skills derived from institutional and organizational synergies. These are computer systems from which it is possible to build an academic or work identity as long as the nodes form consensus and co-responsibilities around scientific and technological production (Molero et al., 2010).

Professional training networks for relationships between institutions and organizations are exposed to problems inherent to collaborative relationships. In this way, the work environment is the determining factor of agreements, conventions and/or consensuses oriented towards organizational development; industrial, scientific, and technological, as well as the innovations of the collaboration groups. That is why they are instruments of knowledge management and innovations that allow overcoming the discrepancy between industrial growth and sustainable development (Coronel, 2010).

Formative violence suggests that the differences between production systems that invest similar amounts of money in their processes are organizational climate, violent asymmetric relations. In this sense, organizations address the imbalance between demands and resources, but it is inequity and discretion that allow task relationships to be adjusted to the diffuse objectives of companies (Díaz, 2013). Organizational formative violence, unlike domestic or work violence, is indicated by asymmetric and inequitable relationships between the members of the knowledge network. In this way, management is replaced by dogmas; freedoms are displaced by discretion; Opportunities give way to impositions, capacities are reduced to their minimum expression in the face of kinship, and co-responsibilities are inhibited by attributions of guilt (Guillén et al., 2011). Formative violence would be the result of the interrelationship between relative and simple majorities and minorities that by innovating increase or decrease their participation in the construction of an organizational climate. This is how vocational training networks are power groups that, by centralizing their decisions, generate educational dissidence and with-it discussion by consensus or the use of violence as a persuasive or dissuasive instrument for knowledge management and innovation. technology (Carreón, 2011).

Political violence warns of the appearance of an organizational climate that materializes in discourses of power in which differences, conflicts and disagreements are symptoms of discretionary management or reveal consensual management, but rather in the influence of the majority over the minorities. The emergence of conflicts is anticipated which, in his opinion, would explain the increase in creativity over trust, initiatives and personal efforts over trust and group commitment, as well as pragmatism over satisfaction directed at innovation, but also towards conformity (Tayo & Adeyemi, 2012).

In this way, violence in digital networks is based on prejudice, depersonalization, benevolence, harassment, submission, objectification, stigma and harassment through technology or devices in information and communication protocols. digital (Carreon et al., 2020). Consequently, at the level of organizations, violence in digital networks is part of an asymmetric professional training process in which the differences between leaders and employees overlap into the climate of relationships between employees, generating a subsystem of violence in the workplace. those employees approach leaders. they are the beneficiaries of the vicious circle of differentiation. Indeed, educational and scientific technology seems to obey an organizational logic in which professional training and the degree of violence of organizational politics are factors that explain the differences between countries that allocate similar amounts of investment and similarities between countries that support its production from different budgetary and financial amounts.

Studies of organizational violence have focused on the deliberate, systematic, and improvised planned process of professional training focused on formative violence such as harassment, bullying, stalking, and trawling in electronic networks in which employees of an organization interact (Carreón et al., 2020).     

Organizational studies show that the work environment is a preponderant factor in explaining collaborative relationships between employees and managers. In this sense, workplace violence has been identified as a factor adjacent to professional training since it involves interpersonal and task conflicts that inhibit productivity and competitiveness. Within the framework of relational climate and workplace violence, this study is inserted in the discussion about sexism as an inhibiting factor in productive relationships (Borjas, 2010). Although educational institutions and for-profit organizations pursue common goals, the discrepancy between responsible professional training and productivity unrelated to sustainability is predominant in disagreements and conflicts between academic and business actors (Vargas, 2011).

Attitudinal psychological studies have focused on its conceptualization, formation, activation, accessibility, structure, function, prediction, change, inoculation, identity, and ambivalence. Attitudes have been defined based on emotional and rational dimensions. Both dimensions are the result of experiences and expectations. This implies its structure: one-dimensional or multidimensional that is configured in exogenous and endogenous factors. That is, when decisions attitudes and behaviors are activated, they cause a peripheral, emotional, spontaneous, heuristic and ambivalent process. On the contrary, when attitudes transmit the effects of values and beliefs on intentions and actions, they are endogenous mediators of a central, rational, deliberate, planned and systematic approach (Berdecia et al., 2012).

Psychological studies have shown significant differences between attitudes towards people and attitudes towards objects. The former refer to stereotypes or attributes and the latter refer to evaluations or dispositions. In both, ambivalence is an indicator of change when beliefs and evaluations interact, forming negative and positive dispositions towards the object. Conflicts are formed within the components formed by beliefs towards the object. Resistance to persuasion is a consequence of attitudinal ambivalence. If the environment threatens the formation and function of attitudes, these will adapt the individual to contingencies. In this way, attitudes have two essential functions: selfish and utilitarian (Cardon et al., 2013).

The state of knowledge has explained the performance of the organization of groups and collaborative networks in situations of scarcity, uncertainty, insecurity and risk. People and groups who develop a climate of trust enhance their work commitment and focus on satisfaction with life, but also put into practice creative and innovative process management in response to contingency. Model proposed by the state of knowledge in the assumption that the socialization of knowledge consists of general information beliefs, it is about general effects on each of the mediating factors of its relationship with behavior. Therefore, the specification of the behavioral dimensions could indicate that there are other intermediate factors with respect to socialization. These are eight indicators of technological behavior that explain the formation of a collaborative group based on information processing.

The theoretical and empirical relationships selected from the literature on formative violence in electronic networks will be adjusted to the empirical observations carried out in an institutional, organizational and academic context of central Mexico. The theories and findings reviewed in the literature when explaining the phenomenon of formative violence in different contexts, areas and scenarios will account for the institutional and academic situation that prevails in the public university regarding violence practiced in electronic networks and even will anticipate scenarios of conflict between the actors. Although the theoretical and empirical frameworks have revealed the dependency relationships between the factors that explain organizational violence, the specificity of the interrelationships in digital networks, as well as the context of study, go beyond the theoretical and empirical assumptions.

The objective of the present work was to confirm the structure of labor and domestic violence that is generated in confinement and prolonged social distancing and in confined and crowded spaces.

Are there significant differences between workplace and domestic violence reported in the literature with respect to the factors established in this study?

The premise that guides this work refers to the fact that domestic or intrafamily violence has spread to the workplace, but with the advent of the pandemic it is possible to observe an inverse process of importing workplace violence to the residential niche (Married, 2020: p.215). Considering that the center of Mexico is distinguished by its high population density and family overcrowding, this workplace violence transferred to the domestic space is distinguished by dimensions related to the differences between the parties in tension, as well as the prolongation of the situation (Herrera et al., 2021: p.1027). As the confinement intensifies, workplace and domestic violence increases, but merging in dimensions that demonstrate a diversification of modes and forms of violence. In this way, it is expected that there are not only significant differences between the theoretical dimensions with respect to the established factors, but it is also assumed that these factors will allow predicting or anticipating scenarios of greater conflicts between the parties.

Method

Design. An exploratory, cross-sectional qualitative and quantitative study was carried out.    

Sample. A non-probabilistic selection of 100 students from a public university was carried out. The selection criterion was belonging to the internship and social service system in for-profit and non-profit organizations and institutions in the municipality of Chimalhuacán, State of Mexico.  

Instrument. The Organizational Violence Scale was used, which includes 32 statements regarding prejudice, depersonalization, benevolence, harassment, submission, objectification, stigma and harassment with five response options ranging from "I don't it looks like the situation” to “it looks a lot like my situation” (see Table 1).       

Table 1. Operationalization of variables

Source: Prepared with the review of the literature

Procedure. Participants were interviewed and surveyed at the university facilities. They were informed that the results of the investigation would neither positively nor negatively affect their school situation. They were asked to answer the questions and statements honestly. They were invited to consult the results in the final report of the research group. Data were processed in the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) and Momentum Structural Analysis Software (AMOS) in versions 10 and 6.0.     

The parameters of kurtosis, Cronbach's alpha, KMO coefficients, Bartlett's test, factor weights, Pearson correlations, "phi" covariances, "beta" and "range" weights, as well as fit indices and residuals were used to test the model. of specified relationships. with the observed data.

Normal. The value of kurtosis close to the unit was assumed as evidence of the normal distribution of the responses of the respondents with respect to the statements that measure the study variables in an instrument with response options and interval measurement levels. 

Validity. KMO coefficients greater than 0.600 and the Bartlett test with a significance level of less than 0.050 were assumed as evidence of product-moment correlations that facilitated the exploratory factor analysis of principal components with varimax rotation . Subsequently, factorial weights greater than 0.300 were considered as evidence of variance maximization in terms of the factors derived from the exploratory analysis. Percentages of explained variance greater than 0.20 were assumed as evidence of acceptance of the null hypothesis.     

Reliability. A Cronbach's alpha value greater than 0.70 was assumed to be sufficient to demonstrate the internal consistency of the indicators with respect to the overall scale and subscales. Product moment correlation greater than 0.90 was considered as evidence of collinearity and multicollinearity, meaning that the items are similar in content.  

Correlation. Pearson's r values close to unity and zero were discarded from further analyzes as they signify collinear or spurious relationships. On the other hand, those values above 0.30 and below 0.90 were assumed as evidence of dependency relationships.  

Covariance. Values of "phi" between 0.30 and 0.90 were identified as evidence of dependency relationships for the case of categorical variables or in combination with continuous variables.    

Structure. Beta values between exogenous and endogenous variables between 0.30 and 0.90 were assumed as evidence of dependency relationships. Similarly, “gamma” values between endogenous variables close to zero or unity were discarded from further analyses.   

Adjustment. The Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) close to unity was assumed as evidence of fit and acceptance of the null hypothesis. On the contrary, values lower than 0.975 were considered evidence of rejection of the null hypothesis and acceptance of the alternative hypothesis.  

Residual. Values close to zero were assumed as evidence of fit between the specified relationships and the data obtained, so the null hypothesis of fit between both models was accepted. On the contrary, values greater than 0.007 were considered as evidence of the rejection of the null hypothesis.  

Results

Table 2 shows that values close to zero kurtosis were interpreted as prerequisites for multivariate analysis. In other words, the instrument in general terms seems to be distributed in moments that can be correlated with each other, and therefore validity and reliability estimates are recommended.

Table 2. Instrument descriptions.

Source: Prepared with the study data: R = Reactive, M = Mean, D = Standard deviation, C = Kurtosis, A = Alpha eliminating the value of the item. Kurtosis = 2.035; Bootstrap = 0.000 F1 = Harassment (23% of variance), F2 = Benevolence (22% of variance), F3 = Reification (21% of variance), F4 = Depersonalization (20% of variance), F5 = Stigma (6% of the variance), F6 = Harassment (4% of the variance), F7 = Prejudice (3% of the variance), F8 = Subjugation (1% of the variance)

Correlations greater than 0.300 and less than 0.900 were established as the threshold required to interpret construct validity. Although the analysis of principal components with varimax rotation distributed the factor weights in eight dimensions, the percentages of explained variance indicate that only four meet the essential minimum to test hypotheses and accept the fit between the specified relationships and the data obtained.

In this way, the bullying, benevolence, objectification and depersonalization factors explain 86% of the total variance.

For harassment, it was configured with items 1 to 4 representing 23% of the variance, kindness included items 5 to 8 and explained 22% of the variance, objectification was established by indicators 9 to 12 and obtained 21 % of variance explained. Finally, depersonalization was indicated by symptoms 13 to 16 and obtained 20% of the variance (see Figure 1).

Source: Prepared with study data

The data partially corroborate the structure reported in the literature. It is necessary to amplify the dimensions of violence in order to carry out a second-order factorial analysis in order to achieve the required validity sedimentation. From the confirmation of the structure of eight factors, it will be possible to establish the indicators that led to forced disappearance in the surveyed sample.

Discussion

Compared to studies on workplace violence, which highlight the modeling of negative factors (harassment, mobbing, sabotage) as determinants of positive factors (commitment, innovation and attention to violence), this study has confirmed eight dimensions where workplace violence is diversified. In order to build a victim profile in an environment of violence, the state of the art and the present work agree that a violence work structure prevails, even in innovative organizations with a commitment to work.

Johnson et al., (2018: p. 623) found that organizational violence was associated with the response rate. That is, the discredit of the employee by your organization prevails over a late response to your case. In the present work, a diversified and systematic organizational violence was found that would correlate with the rate of attention to each of the eight dimensions of violence found in the confirmatory study.

Zalemm et al., (2020: p. 11) showed that violence at work negatively and directly determines work commitment (-.54), although the work environment and organizational culture have a positive impact (, 29 and .20 respectively). In the present work, it was rather demonstrated that eight factors derived from workplace violence prevail in aspects of the work culture and environment. This is the case of patriarchal benevolence that is distinguished by the condescension of the leader towards his employees, as well as the submission that the exclusion of people in important positions due to cultural prejudices or traditional norms supposes.

Zhou et al., (2020: p. 10) showed that harassment, sabotage and mobbing directly and negatively affect innovative work behavior (-.799; -.860; -.648 consecutively). In the present study, bullying was evidenced as a factor of violence, which explained the highest percentage of variance in the structure of factors observed (23%). In other words, harassment is a central factor that explains a phenomenon of workplace violence and negatively determines another structure of innovation at work.

Lines of research in relation to the modeling and empirical testing of direct and negative and the significant relationships between the factors of organizational violence with the factors of innovation, commitment and attention to labor rights will allow identifying the processes of violence. that inhibit or increase a culture and an unfavorable or favorable work environment towards a profile of victims of workplace violence.

Discussion

Compared to studies on workplace violence, which highlight the modeling of negative factors (harassment, mobbing, sabotage) as determinants of positive factors (commitment, innovation and attention to violence), this study has confirmed eight dimensions where workplace violence is diversified. In order to build a victim profile in an environment of violence, the state of the art and the present work agree that a violence work structure prevails, even in innovative organizations with a commitment to work.

Johnson et al., (2018: p. 623) found that organizational violence was associated with the response rate. That is, the discredit of the employee by your organization prevails over a late response to your case. In the present work, a diversified and systematic organizational violence was found that would correlate with the rate of attention to each of the eight dimensions of violence found in the confirmatory study.

Zalemm et al., (2020: p. 11) showed that violence at work negatively and directly determines work commitment (-.54), although the work environment and organizational culture have a positive impact (, 29 and .20 respectively). In the present work, it was rather demonstrated that eight factors derived from workplace violence prevail in aspects of the work culture and environment. This is the case of patriarchal benevolence that is distinguished by the condescension of the leader towards his employees, as well as the submission that the exclusion of people in important positions due to cultural prejudices or traditional norms supposes.

Zhou et al., (2020: p. 10) showed that harassment, sabotage and mobbing directly and negatively affect innovative work behavior (-.799; -.860; -.648 consecutively). In the present study, bullying was evidenced as a factor of violence, which explained the highest percentage of variance in the structure of factors observed (23%). In other words, harassment is a central factor that explains a phenomenon of workplace violence and negatively determines another structure of innovation at work.

Lines of research in relation to the modeling and empirical testing of direct and negative and the significant relationships between the factors of organizational violence with the factors of innovation, commitment and attention to labor rights will allow identifying the processes of violence. that inhibit or increase a culture and an unfavorable or favorable work environment towards a profile of victims of workplace violence.

Conclusion

This study has established benevolence as the preponderant indicator of formative violence. From this reflexive relationship, it can be inferred that in the study sample a discourse is developed on the promotion of self-sacrifice and attention as general attributes of the victims in their professional training process. The contribution of this study to the state of knowledge is that the organizational climate, being considered a determining factor of interpersonal relationships and tasks, could be shaped by formative violence.

However, it is necessary to explore the dimensions of the organizational climate since violence in the workplace is only one aspect of the relationships that can be established between employees and managers. It is true that benevolence would explain the absence of hostile sexism in organizations and anticipate harassment or intimidation in the workplace, but its percentage of variation explained in the work environment would be lower since organizations focus on responding to demands workplaces instead of observing equity and relationships free of violence among their talents.

Organizational and formative violence, indicated by prejudice, depersonalization, benevolence, harassment, subjugation, objectification and stigma supposes harassment from among the members of an organization that, in the case of public institutions of Higher education seems to be inherent in its development since the training of talents would take place at the same time as the training of victims and perpetrators.

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