Journal of Food and Nutrition

Abstract

This study involved the production and quality assessment of cookies from whole wheat, kidney beans and unripe plantain peel flour blends. Whole wheat, kidney beans and unripe plantain peel flours were blended at different ratios to obtain three (3) different blends of composite flour. The blending ratios used were: 80:15:5(sample B), 70:20:10(sample C), 60:10:30(sample D) of whole wheat flour, kidney beans flour and plantain peel flour respectively. 100% whole wheat flour (sample A) served as the control. The proximate, anti-nutrients and mineral composition of the cookies were determined using standard methods. The proximate compositions ranged from 10.90% to 11.65%, 1.54% to 2.54%, 10.82% to 14.24%, 7.69% to 11.72%, 1.70% to 3.02% and 58.26 to 67.35% for moisture, ash, protein, fat, fibre and carbohydrate respectively. The anti-nutrients composition ranged from 2.27mg/100g, to 2.97mg/100g, 1.18% to 3.28% and 1.11% to 5.12% for oxalate, tannin and phytate respectively. The mineral content ranged from 45.22 to 75.31 mg/100g, 32.00 to 62.06 mg/100g, and 20.26 to 31.79mg/100g for calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus respectively. Production of cookies from whole wheat, kidney beans and unripe plantain composite flours would enhance the utilization of these underutilized crops and help in alleviating protein energy malnutrition problems as well as reduce food wastage in developing countries.

Introduction

Cookies are nutritious snacks made through heat application in an oven on unsavory dough transforming it to an appetizing product. They are ready-to-eat, convenient and cost-friendly with important digestive and dietary attributes. (Udoh et al., 2023). A major characteristic of cookies is a low moisture content (Okaka, 2009). Their popularity is world-wide especially in developing countries where protein and caloric malnutrition are prevalent (Chinma and Gernah, 2007).

Whole wheat is a good source of dietary fibre and can help in the prevention and treatment of constipation, cardiovascular diseases and hypertension (Potter and Hotchkiss, 2006). It is rich in essential nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, protein, fat and fibre whereas the refined grain is mostly made up of starch (Bakke and Vicker, 2007). Wheat contains gluten and this makes it perhaps the most widely used grain for making confectionary products. Gluten is responsible for the strength and elasticity of baked products. Whole grain foods have been shown to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease and some types of cancer, have positive effects on blood lipids and glucose, improve insulin resistance, as well as provide large quantities of dietary fibre and micronutrients to the body (McKeown, 2002).

Kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) is a tropical legume rich in protein. It can be consumed to provide protein especially for poor and rural dwellers who may not be able to afford animal protein because of  its  high  cost ( Nzelu, 2010).  It also contains large amounts of vitamins, minerals and crude fibre but has relatively a low quantity of fat.  Processing into flour makes kidney beans more shelf stable (Dzudie and Hardy, 1996). Consumption of kidney beans has been shown to reduce the risks of diabetes and obesity (Geil and Anderson, 1994). It digests much slowly as well as has a low glycemic index when compared to other starchy foods (Nyau, 2014).

Plantain (Musa paradisiaca) is a versatile tropical fruit widely consumed for its taste and nutritional value. Although the fruit itself is highly appreciated, the peel is often thrown away as waste. However, recent research has shown that plantain peel is rich in bioactive compounds and nutritional elements especially minerals like potassium and phosphorus. It has a protein content of between 8 and 11% (Tewe, 1983). Large quantities of plantain peels can easily be seen in restaurants, among plantain roasters and those that use plantain for flour, porridge, juice, chips etc.

Considering the health benefits of kidney beans and unripe plantain peel flour, their incorporation as composite blends in the preparation of cookies may enhance the nutritional and health status of consumers, reduce total dependence on wheat flour, prevent incidence of celiac diseases and reduce environmental pollution caused by unripe plantain peel thereby converting waste generated to a means of wealth acquisition.

Materials And Methods

Source of Raw Materials

Materials used for this work were wheat flour, unripe plantain peel, kidney beans and other baking ingredients. The unripe plantain peels were collected from Oliver Twist Food at Ewet Housing Estate, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State. Kidney beans whole wheat and other baking ingredients were purchased from Akpan Andem Market, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State. All reagents used for analysis were of analytical grade.

Preparation of Raw Materials

Preparation of whole wheat flour

The method described by Joel et al. (2014) was followed in the production of whole wheat flour. The whole wheat grains were cleaned from dirt by sorting out contaminants such as sands, sticks and leaves, and were later washed and oven dried at the temperature of 55oC. The whole wheat was later milled using attrition mill and sieved through a 2 mm mesh sieve, packaged   in an air tight sealed container for subsequent use.

Preparation of plantain peel flour

This was prepared using the method of Akubor et al. (2000). The unripe plantain peels were washed properly and cut into thin slices with a sharp stainless steel knife. The slices were steam blanched (110°C, 15 min) and then soaked in 1% (w/v) sodium metabisulphite for 30 minutes. The slices were oven dried at 60°C to constant weight, milled in an attrition mill, sieved through 60 mesh sieve (British standard) and then packed in high densely polyethylene bags until used.

Preparation of kidney beans flour

The kidney beans were processed into flour following the method described by Chaudhary and Sharma (2013). The kidney beans seeds were sorted to remove foreign material, washed and blanched in hot water at 100°C for 30 min. The blanching water was drained off, the beans washed with fresh water and soaked overnight at room temperature (27± 2°C). The soaked water was drained off and the beans dehulled manually and dried at 55°C in a conventional oven (model pp 22, US, Genelab, England).The dried beans were milled into flour, sieved to pass through 2mm mesh size, packaged  in an air tight container for subsequent use.

Formulation of Composite Flour

Whole wheat, kidney beans and plantain peel flours were blended at different ratios using an electric blender to obtain three (3) different blends of composite flour. The blending ratios used were: 80:15:5(B), 70:20:10(C), 60:10:30(D) of whole wheat flour, kidney beans flour and plantain peel flour respectively. 100% whole wheat flour (A) served as the control.

Formulation of Ingredients and Cookies Preparation

The method described by Okpala et al. (2013) was used to formulate the ingredients as well as produce cookies from blends of wheat, date palm fruit and walnut flours. Ingredients used were: flour (100g), milk powder (7.8g), hydrogenated vegetable oil (40g), baking powder (1g), vanilla essence (2g), egg (31g), salt (1g), nutmeg (0.3g).

Methods of Analysis

Determination of Proximate Content

Moisture, crude protein, crude fat, total ash, crude fiber and carbohydrate contents were determined using the method of AOAC (2005).

Determination of Mineral Content

Calcium, Magnesium and Phosphorus contents were determined using the method of AOAC (2005).

Determination of Anti-nutrient Content

Phytate and oxalate contents were determined using the method described by Onwuka, (2005) while tannin content was determined by the Folis - Denis colorimetric method described by Kirk and Sawyer (1998).

Statistical Analysis

All data were subjected to statistical analysis using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The means were then separated with the use of Duncan New Multiple Range Test (DMRT) using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) 20.0 software.

Results and Discussion

Proximate Composition

The proximate composition of cookies produced from whole wheat flour supplemented with kidney beans and plantain peel flour is shown in Table 1.

The moisture content of the cookies ranged from 10.90% for cookies produced from 100% whole wheat flour to 11.65% for cookies from composite of 10% kidney beans and 30% plantain peel flour. Moisture content plays a vital role in the shelf-life, packaging and general acceptability of any food product (Peter-Ikechukwu et al., 2019). Incorporation of kidney beans and unripe plantain peel flours in the blends resulted in higher moisture content in the cookies. This could be due to the higher moisture content in kidney bean flour relative to other flours. Chaudhary and Sharma (2013) had earlier reported that red kidney beans are high in moisture content. Akhtar et al. (2008) noted that at reduced moisture contents, spoilage of baked products would be reduced due to decreased activity of microorganisms and microbial proliferation will be minimal and it confers higher shelf-life stability to the product. Hence, the range of moisture content of the cookies recorded in this research will prolong the shelf-life of these products in storage.

The Ash content of the cookies ranged from 1.54% for cookies produced from 100% whole wheat flour to 2.54% for cookies produced from whole wheat flour supplemented with 10% kidney beans and 30% plantain peel flour. The Ash content of a food sample is an index of the mineral constituents of such food (Udoh, 2017). The results for ash content in this work is higher than the range of values (1.54 - 2.06%) reported by Udoh et al. (2023) for cookies from composite blends of wheat, date palm fruit and walnut flours. The results revealed that cookies produced from blends of whole wheat, kidney beans and plantain peel flours would contain more mineral elements than the counter part from 100% whole wheat flour alone.

The protein content of the cookies ranged from 10.82% for cookies produced from 100%whole wheat flour to 14.24% for cookies produced from whole wheat flour supplemented with 20% kidney beans and 10% plantain peel flour. The result showed an increase in the protein content when more proportion of kidney beans flour was used. This is because kidney beans is said to be high in protein. There was a significant (p<0.05) difference in the protein contents of the cookies samples. According to FAO/WHO/ FAO (2006), dietary protein is essential during growth when new tissues are being synthesized. Our bodies need dietary protein to supply amino acids for growth and maintenance of our cells and tissues. Thus, the result indicated that the blends of whole wheat, kidney beans and unripe plantain peel flour could be used to address the problem of protein energy malnutrition still prevalent in most of our communities.

The fat content in the cookies varied with the composition of flours in the blends ranging from 7.69% for cookies produced from 100% whole wheat flour to 11.72% for cookies produced from 70% whole wheat flour, 20% kidney bean flour and 10% unripe plantain peel flour. There was a significant difference observed between the fat content in cookies produced from 100% whole wheat flour and the ones from 60% whole wheat flour, 10% kidney beans flour and 30% unripe plantain peel flour. The fat content of cookies obtained in this study was lower than the fat content (23.71-30.09%) of malted soybean-acha biscuit reported by Ayo et al. (2014) but higher than the fat content of cookies produced from cocoyam, sorghum and pigeon pea flour (5.36 – 6.20%) as reported by Okpala and Okoli (2011). High lipid content in cookies has been reported to cause deteriorative changes in the product during storage due to the problem of peroxidation which is responsible for oxidative rancidity in fat-rich food product.

The crude fibre content of the cookies also varied with the composition of the flours in the blends.  Cookies from 100% whole wheat flour had the least fibre content (1.70%) while the counterpart from 60% whole wheat, 10% kidney beans and 30% unripe plantain peel flour had the highest crude fibre content (3.02%). The plantain peel flour may have contributed to the high fiber content of sample D. The samples were significantly different from each other. According to well documented studies, it is now accepted that dietary fibre plays a significant role in the prevention of several diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, diverticulosis, constipation, irritable colon, cancer and diabetes (Slavin, 2013). Fibre is good for the body as it improves the stool bulk by acting as a vehicle for faecal water. The fibre content consists of hemicelluloses, cellulose and lignin. It improves the health of the gastro-intestinal system and metabolic system in human.

The carbohydrate content of the cookies ranged from 58.26% for cookies produced from whole wheat flour supplemented with 20% kidney beans and 10% plantain peel flour to 67.35% for cookies produced from 100% whole wheat flour. The carbohydrate content of the cookies varied among the cookies produced from various blends. The variation in the carbohydrate content could be due to the variation in other constituent as carbohydrate was calculated by difference. The low carbohydrate content of the cookies produced from whole wheat flour supplemented with kidney beans flour and unripe plantain peel would be useful to people requiring low carbohydrate foods leading to enhanced health for obese and overweight individuals. Similar trend was observed by Chinma et al. (2012) for cookies made from unripe plantain and defatted sesame flour blends.         

Anti-nutrient Composition

The anti-nutrient composition of cookies produced from whole wheat flour supplemented with kidney beans and plantain peel flour is shown in Table 2.

The oxalate value ranged from 2.27mg/100g for cookies produced with 100% whole wheat to 2.97mg/100g for cookies produced with whole wheat flour supplemented with 10% kidney beans and 30% unripe plantain peel. Results of oxalate analysis showed a significant difference in all the cookies samples (p˂0.05). High oxalate in diets can increase the risk of renal calcium absorption and has been implicated as a source of kidney stones.  Reducing oxalate concentration in human diets is very important due to the fact that it inhibits micronutrient absorption, blocks the kidney in form of accumulated stones and is a precursor for rheumatoid arthritis (Franceschi and Nakata, 2005).

 The Tannin Content of the cookies was significantly low and ranged from 1.18% for cookies produced with 100% whole wheat to 3.28% for cookies produced with whole wheat supplemented with 10% Kidney beans and 30% Unripe plantain peel flour. The tannin content was significantly different in each of the samples. Tannins affect protein digestibility and adversely influence nutrient bioavailability. Tannins possess anti-cancerous, antimicrobial, anthelmintic, anti-viral and wound healing properties but under certain consumption conditions, cause reduced digestibility, anti-nutritional effect, cancer inducer and many other diseases (Sharma et al., 2019). The importance of tannins in promoting glucose absorption, thereby reducing the risk of diabetes has also been established (Kumari and Jain, 2015).

The phytate content of the cookies was significantly low and ranged from 1.11% for cookies produced with 100% whole wheat flour to 5.12% for cookies produced with whole wheat supplemented with 10% kidney beans and 30% unripe plantain peel flour. There was significant difference amongst sample B and C (p ˂0.05). Phytate in human diet limits the uptake of such minerals as Zn, Fe and Ca ions. It also forms a strong complex with some proteins at some pH, thereby preventing their proteolysis and hindering enzymatic activity (Kumar et al., 2010). The high value recorded in sample D may be due to the high amount of phytate present in unripe plantain peel.

Mineral Composition

Minerals are nutrients that are as essential as our need for oxygen to sustain life. They are found in organic and inorganic combinations in food. Table 3 shows that the mineral composition of the cookies (Ca, Mg, and P) varied significantly (P<0.05). This could be attributed to the variation in mineral composition of the different flours used in the composite flour formulation.

The calcium content of the cookies ranged from 45.22mg/100g for cookies produced from 100% whole wheat flour to 75.31mg/100g for cookies produced from composite of 10% kidney beans and 30% plantain peel flour. The calcium content of the cookies differed significantly (P<0.05) from each other. Calcium is found mostly in the bone, but the small amount found outside the bone functions in variety of essential processes (Chaney, 2011). It facilitates certain hormonal reactions crucial for blood coagulation, muscle contraction, and neuromuscular irritability. Exercise facilitates calcium utilization for bone formation while low serum Ca2₊ stimulates bone reabsorption. Thus, long term dietary Ca2₊ insufficiency always results in net loss of calcium from the bones.

The magnesium content of the cookies ranged from 32.00mg/100g for cookies produced from 100% whole wheat flour to 62.06mg/100g for cookies from composite of 10% kidney beans and 30% plantain peel flour. Magnesium is required for many enzyme activities, particularly those utilizing an ATP- Mg2+complex, and for neuromuscular transmission. Supplemental Mg2+ may help prevent the formation of calcium oxalate stones in the kidney. It has also been shown to lower blood pressure in several clinical studies. Mg2+ content is significantly reduced during food processing. Deficiency occurs in alcoholism, with use of certain diuretics and in metabolic acidosis. Its symptoms include weakness, tumors and cardia arrhythmia. Increased ratio of plantain peel flour was seen to increase the magnesium content of the cookies.

The phosphorus content ranged from 20.26mg/100g for cookies produced from 100% whole wheat flour to 31.79mg/100g for cookies from whole wheat flour supplemented with 10% kidney beans and 30% plantain peel flour. The results for the phosphorus content showed that there existed a significant difference among all the samples.

Table 1: Proximate composition of cookies from whole wheat, kidney beans and unripe plantain peel flour blends (%)

Values are means ± standard deviations of triplicate determinations. Means with different superscript on the same column are significantly (P<0.05) different.

Key:

Where: Sample A = 100% Whole Wheat (CONTROL)

Sample B = 80% Whole wheat, 15 % Kidney beans, 5% Unripe plantain peel

Sample C = 70% Whole wheat, 20% Kidney beans, 10% Unripe plantain peel

Sample D = 60 Whole wheat, 10% Kidney beans, 30% Unripe plantain peel        

Table 2: Anti-nutrient composition of cookies from whole wheat, kidney beans and unripe plantain peel flour blends

Values are means ± standard deviations of triplicate determinations. Means with different superscript on the same column are significantly (P<0.05) different.

Key:

Sample A = 100% Whole Wheat (CONTROL)

Sample B = 80% Whole wheat, 15 % Kidney beans, 5% Unripe plantain peel

Sample C = 70% Whole wheat, 20% Kidney beans, 10% Unripe plantain peel

Sample D = 60 Whole wheat, 10% Kidney beans, 30% Unripe plantain peel

Table 3: Mineral composition of cookies from whole wheat, kidney beans and unripe plantain peel flour blends (mg/100g)

Values are means ± standard deviations of triplicate determinations. Means with different superscript on the same column are significantly (P<0.05) different.

Key:

Sample A = 100% Whole Wheat (CONTROL)

Sample B = 80% Whole wheat, 15 % Kidney beans, 5% Unripe plantain peel

Sample C = 70% Whole wheat, 20% Kidney beans, 10% Unripe plantain peel

Sample D = 60 Whole wheat, 10% Kidney beans, 30% Unripe plantain peel

Conclusion

This work has demonstrated that acceptable cookies with increased protein, ash, fat, crude fibre as well as mineral content can be successfully produced using composite flours of whole wheat, kidney beans and unripe plantain peel. Therefore its use for the production of cookies will go a long way in reducing dependence on wheat flour for cookies production. It will also reduce foreign exchange used in importing wheat and improve the nutritional value of cookies. In addition, the use of these local crops in cookies production would also increase their production, consumption, utilization as well as the economic power of local farmers and alleviate protein energy malnutrition in developing countries while also reducing waste from food-producing facilities.

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